Preface V Introduction 1
What are ore deposits? 1
Mining in the stress field between society and environment 2
The mineral resources conundrum 4
Part I Metalliferous Ore Deposits1 Geological ore formation process systems (metallogenesis) (Synopsis) 51.1 Magmatic Ore Formation Systems 9
1.1.1 Orthomagmatic ore formation 10
1.1.2 Ore deposits related to ocean floor volcanism (ophiolite hosted Cyprus type Zn-Cu-Au) 21
1.1.3 Ore formation related to alkaline igneous rocks, carbonatites and kimberlites 26
1.1.4 Granites – The Earth’s workhorses of ore formation 29
1.1.5 Ore deposits in pegmatites: Sources of high-technology rare and “green” metals 37
1.1.6 Hydrothermal ore formation 42 Isotope geochemistry 47 Fluid Inclusions: Temperature and pressure 53 Mineral succession: Ore microscopy to EPMA 56 Hydrothermal Host Rock Alteration 59
1.1.7 Hydrothermal vein deposits 62
1.1.8 Skarn- and contact-metasomatic ore deposits 68
1.1.9 Volcanogenic ore deposits – Gold, iron and base metals 70 Subvolcanic porphyry copper 71 Terrestrial volcanic epithermal Au and Ag 76 Submarine volcanogenic massive sulfides 79
1.2 Supergene Ore Formation Systems 82
1.2.1 Residual, or eluvial ore deposits 85
1.2.2 Supergene enrichment by descending solutions 87
1.2.3 Infiltration as an agent of ore formation 92
1.3 Sedimentary Ore Formation Systems 95
1.3.1 Organic-rich shales in metallogenesis 97
1.3.2 Placer deposits 98
1.3.3 Autochthonous iron and manganese deposits 102
1.3.4 Sediment-hosted,submarine-exhalative (sedex) deposits 109
1.4 Diagenetic Ore Formation Systems 112
1.4.1 The European Copper Shale 116
1.4.2 Diagenetic-hydrothermal carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits 118
1.4.3 Diagenetic hydrothermal-metasomatic ore deposits 121
1.4.4 Diagenetic-hydrothermal ore formation related to salt diapirs 123
1.5 Metamorphosed and Metamorphic Ore Deposits 125
1.6 Metamorphogenic Ore Formation Systems 129
1.7 Metallogeny – Ore Deposit Formation in Space and Time 136
1.7.1 Metallogenetic space and time concepts 137
1.7.2 Metallogeny and lid tectonics (4500 to ~2500 Ma) 139
1.7.3 Metallogeny and plate tectonics (~2500 Ma to the present) 139
1.8 Genetic Classification of Ore and Mineral Deposits 151
1.9 Metallogenesis: Summary and Further Reading 154
2 Economic geology of metals (Synopsis) 1572.1 The Iron and Steel Metals 157
2.1.1 Iron 157
2.1.2 Manganese 168
2.1.3 Chromium 172
2.1.4 Nickel 177
2.1.5 Cobalt 184
2.1.6 Molybdenum 186
2.1.7 Tungsten (wolfram) 191
2.1.8 Vanadium 195
2.2 BaseMetals 197
2.2.1 Copper 197
2.2.2 Lead and zinc 210
2.2.3 Tin 218
2.3 Precious Metals 224
2.3.1 Gold 240
2.3.2 Silver 240
2.3.3 Platinum and platinum group metals 246
2.4 Light Metals 251
2.4.1 Aluminium 251
2.4.2 Magnesium 256
2.5 Minor and Speciality Metals 258
2.5.1 Mercury 258
2.5.2 Antimony 261
2.5.3 Arsenic 264
2.5.4 Electronic metals (selenium, tellurium, gallium, germanium, indium, cadmium) and silicon 267
2.5.5 Bismuth 270
2.5.6 Zirconium and hafnium 271
2.5.7 Titanium 271
2.5.8 Rare earth elements (REE, lanthanides) 277
2.5.9 Niobium and tantalum 282
2.5.10 Lithium 289
2.5.11 Beryllium 292
2.5.12 Uranium (and thorium) 295
2.6 Metals: Summary and Further Reading 309
Part II Non-Metallic Minerals and Rocks3 Industrial minerals, earths and rocks (Synopsis) 311 3.1 Andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite 312
3.2 Asbestos 315
3.3 Barite and celestite 318
3.4 Bentonite (smectite rocks) 322
3.5 Borates 325
3.6 Carbonate rocks: limestone, calcite marble, marlstone, dolomite 328
3.7 Clay and clay rocks 331
3.8 Diamond 334
3.9 Diatomite and tripoli 342
3.10 Feldspar and feldspar-rich igneous rocks 343
3.11 Fluorite 345
3.12 Graphite 349
3.13 Gypsum and anhydrite 352
3.14 Kaolin 355
3.15 Magnesite 358
3.16 Mica (muscovite, phlogopite, vermiculite) 364
3.17 Olivine (dunite) 367
3.18 Phosphate (apatite) 369
3.19 Quartz and silicon 373
3.20 Quartzite 375
3.21 Quartz sand and gravel 377
3.22 Sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate and alum salts 380
3.23 Sulfur 381
3.24 Talc and pyrophyllite 384
3.25 Volcaniclastic rocks 388
3.26 Wollastonite 390
3.27 Zeolites 392
3.28 Industrial Minerals and Rocks: Summary and Further Reading 394
4 Salt deposits (evaporites) (Synopsis) 3974.1 Salt Minerals and Salt Rocks 399
4.2 The Formation of Salt Deposits 405
4.2.1 Salt formation today 405
4.2.2 Salt formation in the geological past 413
4.3 Post-Depositional Fate of Salt Rocks 425
4.3.1 Diagenesis and metamorphism of evaporites 425
4.3.2 Deformation of salt rocks 428
4.3.3 Halokinesis and salt tectonics 430
4.3.4 Supergene alteration of salt deposits 435
4.4 From Exploration to Salt Mining 437
4.4.1 Exploration and development of salt deposits 437
4.4.2 Geological practice in salt mining 439
4.5 Salt: Summary and Further Reading 441
Part III The Practice of Economic Geology5 Geological concepts and methods in the mining cycle: Exploration, exploitation and closure of mines (Synopsis) 443 5.1 Economic Considerations 444
5.2 The Search for Mineral Deposits (Exploration) 446
5.2.1 Pre-explorationstage 446
5.2.2 Geological exploration 448
5.2.3 Geological remote sensing 451
5.2.4 Geochemical exploration 454
5.2.5 Geophysical exploration 460
5.2.6 Trenching and drilling 466
5.3 Development and Valuation of Mineral Deposits 470
5.3.1 Geological mapping and sampling 470
5.3.2 Ore reserve estimation and determination of grade 473
5.3.3 Valuation of mineral deposits 479
5.4 Mining and the Environment 481
5.4.1 Potential environmental problems related to mining 482
5.4.2 Waste rock, tailings and seepage water 487
5.4.3 Mining and climate change 488
5.4.4 Mine closure 489
5.5 Deep Geological Disposal of Dangerous Waste 492
5.6 The Practice of Economic Geology: Summary and Further Reading 495
Part IV Fossil Energy Raw Materials – Coal, Oil and Gas6 Coal (Synopsis) 5006.1 The Substance of Coal 505
6.1.1 Coal types, rank and grade 505
6.1.2 Petrography of coal: lithotypes and macerals 508
6.1.3 The chemical composition of coal 511
6.2 Peat Formation and Coal Deposits 519
6.2.1 Types and dimensions of coal seams 519
6.2.2 Concordant and discordant clastic sediments in coal seams 522
6.2.3 Peat formation environments 522
6.2.4 Host rocks of coal 526
6.2.5 Marker beds in coal formations 527
6.2.6 Coal formation in geological space and time 528
6.3 The Coalification Process 528
6.3.1 Biochemical peatification 528
6.3.2 Geochemical coalification 530
6.3.3 Measuring the degree of coalification 531
6.3.4 Causes of coalification 532
6.3.5 Coal maturity and diagenesis of country rocks 535
6.4 Post-Depositional Changes of Coal Seams 535
6.4.1 Tectonic deformation 535
6.4.2 Epigenetic mineralization of coal seams 536
6.4.3 Exogenetic alteration of coal 536
6.5 Applications of Coal Geology 537
6.5.1 Exploration 537
6.5.2 Reserve estimation 540
6.5.3 Coal mining geology 541
6.5.4 Environmental aspects of coal mining 543
6.6 Coal: Summary and Further Reading 547
7 Petroleum and Natural Gas Deposits 551 7.1 Species of Natural Bitumens, Gas and Kerogen, and their Properties 553
7.1.1 Crude oil, or petroleum 554
7.1.2 Natural gas 556
7.1.3 Natural gas hydrates (clathrates) 559
7.1.4 Tar 560
7.1.5 Earth wax (ozocerite) 560
7.1.6 Pyrobitumen 560
7.1.7 Natural asphalt 560
7.1.8 Kerogen 560
7.2 The Origin of Petroleum and Natural Gas 562
7.2.1 Petroleum source rocks 563
7.2.2 Dry gas source rocks 565
7.2.3 Eogenesis and catagenesis of kerogen 566
7.2.4 The oil window 569
7.3 Formation of Petroleum and Natural Gas Deposits 570
7.3.1 Migration 571
7.3.2 Conventional and unconventional reservoir rocks 573
7.3.3 Petroleum and gas traps 575
7.3.4 Formation and reservoir waters 581
7.3.5 Alteration of petroleum in reservoirs (degradation) 582
7.3.6 Tectonic environments and age of hydrocarbon provinces 583
7.4 Exploring for Petroleum and Natural Gas Deposits 584
7.4.1 Geophysical methods 586
7.4.2 Geochemical methods of hydrocarbon exploration 587
7.4.3 Exploration drilling 587
7.4.4 Geophysical borehole measurements 588
7.5 The Exploitation of Petroleum and Natural Gas Deposits 592
7.5.1 Reservoir conditions 592
7.5.2 Oil and gasfield development 594
7.5.3 Oil and gas production 596
7.5.4 Petroleum mining 599
7.5.5 Reserve and Resource Estimation 599
7.5.6 Post-production uses of oil and gas fields 601
7.6 Tar, Asphalt, Pyrobitumen and Shungite 601
7.7 Immature Oil Shales 604
7.8 Environmental Aspects of Oil and Gas Production 605
7.8.1 Water resources protection 608
7.8.2 Subsidence, and induced (man-made) seismic activity 608
7.8.3 Hydrocarbons and climate 609
7.9 Hydrocarbons: Summary and Further Reading 609
Color Plates 613
The New Age of Economic Geology – Epilogue 645
References, General Index, Location Index, Box Titles 647
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